Notes

Italy in the 15th century was unique in comparison to other European nations like France or Great Britain, which were united under one monarch and divided into strict class systems.  Under these class systems it was virtually impossible to increase your wealth or social status, since the classes had strictly assigned roles.  Italy, however, was instead divided into independent, self-governing “city-states.”  The Renaissance began in one such city-state, the independent republic of Florence, where the merchants and traders were wealthy and powerful. This was much different than other European nations where the noble classes ruled and subjugated the lower classes. Florentines had much more freedom, due to the republican form of government (as opposed to a monarchy) and because the absence of a feudal system allowed more upward mobility in terms of wealth and social status.  The wealthiest Florentines would flaunt their money and power through “patronage,” meaning that they provided suppo...

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from sources which are practically limitless in amount and regenerate very quickly. Some examples of renewable energy are solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy, etc. This form of energy is much cleaner and much more environmentally friendly as compared to nonrenewable energy. Yet, there are many obstacles to overcome in order to replace nonrenewable energy and enact a large-scale adoption of renewable energy.  Renewable energy is a localized form of energy and is also time bound. For example, one cannot expect same amount of solar radiation at every location and 24 hours a day. So, solar energy can only be used in places that have more sunshine. Wind energy is similarly localized to windy areas. The energy has to be stored in batteries during non-production hours (night for solar energy and non-windy for wind energy, etc.). The efficiency of energy conversion of renewable energy sources is very low. A good solar panel will ha...

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The religious climate of the Salem Witch Trial period was one of Puritanism. Puritans were called such for two reasons: They sought to purify new Protestant practices from any vestiges of the Catholic Church. In the eyes of new-world Protestants, no branch of Protestantism had yet gone far enough in throwing off all remnants of Catholic thought and ritual. Puritans were also given their name due to their puritanical way of life, which sought to rid all bodies and communities of sin, with a particular focus on lust/sexual sin, which is an evident theme in The Crucible . Women were branded witches for many reasons in Puritan society, but most often -- as in Miller's play -- women were punished for inspiring lust and for performing any acts perceived as ritualistic, as ritual is a strong component of the Catholic faith. It's also important to note that the time of The Crucible 's writing was reflective of the Salem Witch Trials' period, at least culturally. Arthur Miller u...

Georg Simmel (1858-1918), a German sociologist, published his thoughts on value as it relates to currency in "The Philosophy of Money" (1900).  Simmel's main theme in the work is the impersonal nature of money among people in society.  He argues economic exchange is a social interaction and money is the medium of the exchange.  Money is merely the token upon which both parties agree represents the exchange item, tangible or otherwise.  The impersonal nature of monetary exchange allows for growth of personal freedom, but can hinder personal growth due to social comparison.  Simmel claims the impersonal nature of transactions limits the social interaction to the matter at hand; an exchange of goods or services.  The monetary system helps to overcome social isolation by creating a universal method of communication and understanding.  However, the dark side of value is the disparity which arises when one person feels socially outcast due to society deeming their contribution...

Relationships between organisms are an important part of ecological systems. If a relationship is  symbiotic,  this means that two organisms live in close quarters and may interact with one another. There are several types of symbiotic relationships, including parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism. Parasitism is a specific kind of relationship where one organism lives off of another. Insects like fleas are parasites and engage in parasitic relationships where they drink the blood of a host organism. Commensalism is kind of the opposite of parasitism-- two organisms may share a living space and one benefits while doing no harm to the other. For example, clown fish live inside of anemones. The anemone can cause stinging, but because the clown fish coats itself in a protective slime, it does not get stung. In this way, the clown fish is protected by the anemone, which may sting other organisms, and the anemone is not at all harmed. Mutualism describes a mutually beneficial symbiotic rel...

Louis Riel was a Canadian activist who helped found Manitoba. In 1869, he led the Metis (Canadian people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry) in their fight against the encroachment of Anglo-Protestant immigrants into their territory when the Hudson Bay Company wanted to sell Rupert’s Land (about 1/3 of Canada’s land mass in the Northwest) to the Dominion of Canada. The Red River Colony (founded in 1812 in Rupert's Land) resisted the sale for fear they would loose their social, cultural, and political status to the Canadian Confederation. Under Riel’s leadership, the newly formed Metis National Committee was able to thwart progress toward the sale, and by December 1869, produced a provisional government for all of Rupert’s Land. In their "Declaration of the People of Rupert's Land and the North-West," the people rejected Canada’s right to govern the territory and proposed a negotiated settlement between the provisional government and the Confederation government...